Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program

By

Ternesha Pittman

An Applied Dissertation Submitted to the

Abraham S. Fischler College of Education

and School of Criminal Justice in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Education

Nova Southeastern University

2023

Approval Page

This applied dissertation was submitted by Ternesha Pittman under the direction of the persons listed below. It was submitted to the Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education at Nova Southeastern University.

Shery Bennett, EdD

Committee Chair

Barbara Christina, EdD

Committee Member

Kimberly Durham, PsyD

Dean

Statement of Original Work

I declare the following:

I have read the Code of Student Conduct and Academic Responsibility as described in the Student Handbook of Nova Southeastern University. This applied dissertation represents my original work, except where I have acknowledged the ideas, words, or material of other authors.

Where another author’s ideas have been presented in this applied dissertation, I have acknowledged the author’s ideas by citing them in the required style.

Where another author’s words have been presented in this applied dissertation, I have acknowledged the author’s words by using appropriate quotation devices and citations in the required style.

I have obtained permission from the author or publisher—in accordance with the required guidelines—to include any copyrighted material (e.g., tables, figures, survey instruments, large portions of text) in this applied dissertation manuscript.

Ternesha Pittman__________

Name

March 22, 2023__________

Date

Abstract

Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program: A Phenomenological Perspective. Ternesha Pittman, 2023: Applied Dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice. Keywords: attention span, pre-kindergarten

The first paragraph must contain all of the elements shown in this sample. The applied dissertation title, your name (surname last), and the year must be identical to the title, name, and year on the title page.

Single-space within each paragraph, but double-space between paragraphs. Do not indent the first lines of paragraphs. The narrative portion (i.e., after the informational first paragraph) of the abstract should be 220-270 words. The abstract must not exceed one page in length. See section 2.04 of the APA manual for content guidelines.

[INSERT DESCRIPTION OF DISSERTATION- Example Follows]: This applied dissertation was designed to provide better access to current information for the students and staff in a middle school. The printed materials located in the school’s media center were outdated, scarce, or inadequate. Electronic databases were available in the media center for online searching and information retrieval. However, the students did not know how to use databases as a source for completing class assignments or how to browse within these online services to find additional information. Teachers also did not know to use electronic information to enrich their lessons.

The researcher developed lesson plans and strategies to train students and teachers on two online services available in the media center. Daily sessions on these databases provided students and teachers with training in (a) e-mail usage, (b) searching and locating current events information, (c) printing from the screen, (d) saving messages, and (e) dialing into the online services. Teachers were encouraged to continue to use these services for curriculum enrichment and as an additional source for future lesson plans.

An analysis of the data revealed that students were more likely than teachers to use the online databases. The most successful activities were those that involved students in research information about current events. Although teachers planned assignments that required the use of online services, they did not want to provide additional time for students to be in the media center.

Table of Contents

Page

Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Setting of the Study………………………………………………………………………………………. 7

Researcher’s Role……………………………………………………………………………………….. 8

Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………………………………. 9

Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………………………………….. 10

Chapter 2: Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………….. 13

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13

Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………………….. 14

Further Research Needed……………………………………………………………………………. 17

Shortcomings of the Previous Research………………………………………………………….. 18

Critiques of the Literature…………………………………………………………………………….. 20

Factors Associated with Attention Problems in Preschoolers………………………………. 21

Impact of Media Use on a Child’s Attention Span……………………………………………. 22

Problems with Focus in Preschoolers…………………………………………………………….. 23

Attention and Cognitive Development in Kindergarten………………………………………. 26

Significance of Children’s Concentration-Persistence for Future Success………………. 29

Strategies to Improve Attention Spans……………………………………………………………. 32

Teacher-Directed Reading…………………………………………………………………………… 32

Significance of Considering the Setting……………………………………………………………. 33

Contextual Changes in Instructional Materials………………………………………………….. 34

Apprenticeship in the Classroom Language……………………………………………………… 36

Hybridity and the Growth of Third Spaces………………………………………………………. 37

Computer-based Instruction…………………………………………………………………………. 39

Training Programs Offered by Computer-based Instruction………………………………… 39

Math School-based Programs………………………………………………………………………. 41

Parental Involvement During Family Mealtime Conversation……………………………….. 42

Types of Parental Involvement Programs to Benefit Students……………………………… 44

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46

Research Question Considerations………………………………………………………………… 46

Research Questions……………………………………………………………………………………. 50

Chapter 3: Methodology………………………………………………………………………………………… 52

Participants……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 52

Instruments……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 54

Procedures……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56

Chapter 4: Results………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29

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Chapter 5: Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………. 46

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References………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 64

Appendices

A     Classroom Observations Data……………………………………………………………….. 76

B     Demographic Characteristics of Potential Participants ………………………………… 78

C     Student Survey…………………………………………………………………………………… 80

D     Student Pre-Survey/Post-Survey……………………………………………………………. 83

E     Parent/teacher Pre-Survey/Post-Survey…………………………………………………… 85

F     Student Pre-Survey/Post-Survey……………………………………………………………. 87

Tables

1     Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case………………………………………………………… 10

2     Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case………………………………………………………… 48

Figure

Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case………………………………………………………………. 47

Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

The problem addressed in this study is the difficulty pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs have in  maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities. Research has shown that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, as it directly impacts a child’s ability to process and understand the material they are reading (Ledford et al., 2008).

Evidence supporting the existence of the problem includes studies that found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008). Additionally, research has shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002). There is a pattern of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs having difficulty with attention and focus during reading activities. The setting for this study will take place at elementary schools in Southeastern Florida for pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

Some probable causes of the problem include little parental involvement, few teacher-directed reading and computer-based instructional activities, and lack of individualised instruction (Ledford et al., 2000). The specific and feasible statement of the solution to the problem is to determine the effectiveness of different strategies. They include parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities (Tian et al., 2020).

The problem can be attributed to various factors, including the increasing use of technology in the classroom, changes in family dynamics and parenting practices, and a general decline in physical activity levels (Kim et al., 2018). Research has shown that excessive screen time can lead to decreased attention spans and difficulty focusing on other tasks, such as reading (Benton et al., 1987). Additionally, some families have become more reliant on technology for entertainment and education, leading to less time spent on traditional activities such as reading together (Schuck et al., 2018). Furthermore, the sedentary lifestyle many children lead today is a contributing factor,  physical activity has been linked to improved cognitive function and attention (Geri et al., 2017).

The problem of decreased attention spans in Pre-K students in Head-start programs is compounded by the fact that these children are at a critical stage in their development when their brains are rapidly forming and growing. During this time, children develop foundational skills and knowledge that will set the foundation for future success in school and beyond (Basso et al., 2016).

In conclusion, the problem of decreased attention spans in Pre-K students in Head-start programs is a growing concern that impacts not only the students but also their families and teachers. The problem is complex and can be attributed to various factors, including technology, changes in family dynamics, and a decline in physical activity (Kim et al., 2018). Given the critical stage of development these children are in; the problem must be addressed to ensure that these students have the best chance for success in their future education and life.

The Research Problem

The research problem in this study is the gap between the desired level of attention and focus pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs should have while engaged in reading activities and the level of attention and focus currently observed (Bassok et al., 2016). While it is acknowledged that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities.

The gap in attention span can negatively impact their ability to process and understand the material they are reading and can also predict lower academic achievement in the Future (Tang & Posner, 2009; Gaston et al., 2016). The research applied solition is to investigate the strategies that can effectively close this gap and improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

The gap between what is desired and what is observed in this situation concerns educators, parents, and researchers. Understanding the underlying causes of this problem is essential, as finding effective solutions to improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Doherty et al., 2002). This research problem is particularly relevant in today’s world, where technology and digital devices are becoming increasingly prevalent and may affect children’s attention spans.

In general, the research problem of poor attention spans in reading of Pre-K students in Head-start Program is a critical issue that deserves attention and research. By finding effective solutions, it may be ensured that pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs receive the support they need to succeed in their education and beyond (Kim et al., 2018). A successful solution will not only benefit these students but also have a positive impact on their future academic careers and lives

Background and Justification

The problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs is well-documented in the literature (Reid et al., 2015). Research has shown that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, as it directly impacts a child’s ability to process and understand the material they are reading (Ledford et al., 2008). Studies have found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008; Wasik et al., 2009). Additionally, research has shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002).

Furthermore, parental involvement in reading activities has been shown to positively affect children’s reading skills, vocabulary, and comprehension (Karweit, 1989; Wasik et al., 2009). Studies have also found that computer-based instruction can effectively improve reading skills, especially for students with poor reading skills (Kim et al., 2018). The problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs is relevant as it can negatively impact their ability to process and understand the material they are reading and can also predict lower academic achievement in the Future (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Thus, it is important to investigate strategies that can effectively improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, at the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and investigate parental involvement’s.

Deficiencies in the Evidence

There are many literature sources focusing on the challenges in maintaining attention during reading activities among pre-kindergarten students enrolled in Head-start programs. However, there are still several areas that need improvement (Kikas et al., 2018). One thing to improve on is to perform more studies that narrow down and present precise strategies that can successfully improve the attention span of learners in Head-starts programs during the reading activities (Murray et al., 2018; Silverstein et al., 2001). Some studies have explored the role of parental involvement during reading session and they identify that additional research need to be performed to assess its effectiveness (Alvarado et al., 2017). While some studies are inclining towards investigating the efficiency of computer-based instruction on reading abilities, still advanced research need to be performed in this area to assess its effectiveness in increasing learners’ attention span (Ledford et al., 2008).

Another need for the problem is more research on the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). While some studies have investigated the relationship between attention span and academic achievement, there needs to be more research on the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

Given these deficiencies in the evidence, there is a need for further research to investigate the specific strategies and parental involvement that can be effective in improving the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021).

Moreover, while some studies have looked into how well computer-based instruction affects reading abilities, there needs to be more data on how well technology affects pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs’ attention spans when participating in reading activities (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Little study on the long-term consequences of attention span enhancement on students’ academic performance and success is another area of need regarding the issue (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). Research on the long-term consequences of interventions to increase attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs still needs to be completed, despite several studies examining the association between attention span and academic achievement.

In conclusion, there are deficiencies in the evidence related to the problem of low attention span in pre-kindergarten students while reading (Basso et al., 2016). The literature needs a comprehensive understanding of the underlying causes of this problem and the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving attention span. This study aims to address these deficiencies  and provide new insights into this important issue. Given these deficiencies, there is a need for further research to investigate the specific strategies and parental involvement that can be effective in improving the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021).

Audience

The audience affected by the problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs includes the pre-kindergarten students themselves, as well as their families, teachers, and the broader community. Pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs who struggle with attention and focus during reading activities may have difficulty processing and understanding the material, which can negatively impact their reading development and academic achievement. It can lead to difficulties in later grades and potentially impact their future success.

In addition to the pre-kindergarten students, their families, and communities are also affected by this problem. Parents and caregivers play a critical role in supporting their children’s education and development. A lack of attention span in reading can lead to difficulties in communication and bonding between children and their families (Kim et al., 2018). Furthermore, a lack of attention span can also impact these students’ educational attainment and future success, which can have ripple effects on their communities.

The Setting of the Study

The setting for this study will take place at southeastern Florida, pre-kindergarten, a Head-start program. Head-start programs are federally funded programs and provide comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. The classrooms in these programs typically include students between the ages of 3 and 5 who come from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, and on average include 20 to 40 students.

In Southeastern Florida, pre-kindergarten is in an urban area, with classrooms and students ethnically and culturally diverse (Raver, 2002). The study will focus on implementing different strategies such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction in these classrooms and the impact these strategies have on the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, at the same time, they are engaged in reading activities.

The study will take place in multiple pre-kindergarten settings within the Head-Start program to provide a comprehensive understanding of the problem. It will help ensure that the study’s findings are representative of the population of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs and are not biased by the specific characteristics of a single setting (Karweit, 1989). In conclusion, the setting’s aim for the Study of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in the Head-start Program will be pre-kindergarten classrooms within the Head Start program (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). This setting provides an ideal environment for observing and assessing students’ attention spans and implementing interventions to improve their attention spans. (Karweit, 1989).

Researcher’s Role

In this study’s context, the researcher will design and conduct the study, collect and analyse data, and interpret and report the findings. The researcher will be responsible for ensuring that the study is conducted ethically and rigorously, with appropriate safeguards in place to protect the rights and well-being of participants. In addition, the researcher will collaborate with other members of the research team, including educators, administrators, and other professionals, as needed. This collaboration would be critical in ensuring that the study is designed and implemented feasibly and that it considers the needs and perspectives of all stakeholders involved.

The researcher will also be responsible for disseminating the study’s findings to the wider academic community and relevant stakeholders, including educators, policymakers, families, and communities. This dissemination would be critical in ensuring that the study’s findings are used to inform the development of policies and programs that support the education and development of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs. In conclusion, the role of the researcher in the Study of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in the Head-start Program is critical. The researcher will be responsible for designing and conducting the study, collecting and analysing data, and interpreting and reporting the findings. The researcher will also collaborate with other research team members and disseminate the study findings to relevant stakeholders.

Purpose of the Study

The problem addressed in this study is the diffuclty pre-kindergarten students in Head- start programs are in mainaining attention while engaged in reading activites.

Thus study will investigate the effectiveness of different strategies, such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs at the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). Additionally, the study aims to examine the role of parental involvement in promoting the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs at the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Kim et al., 2018). The study seeks to provide insight and evidence on the best methods to improve attention span in young children, which will benefit educators, parents, and policymakers (Wrońska et al., 2015). Ultimately, the study aims to improve the reading development and academic achievement of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, which can positively impact their future success.

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of interventions to improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs, at the same time, they engage in reading activities (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). This information will be critical in informing the development of educational programs and policies that support the education and development of young children in Head Start programs and will provide insights into the strategies and approaches that are most effective in improving attention span and promoting success in reading activities

Definition of Terms

The following terms will be utilized throughout this study

Pre-Kindergarten (PK) and Voluntary Pre-Kindergarten (VPK) are educational programs designed for children who are 4 or 5 years old and have yet to start kindergarten (Basso et al., 2016). Public schools usually offer Pre-Kindergarten (PK) programs. They are usually free of charge to families, although some programs may have specific requirements such as income limits or language proficiency (Basso et al., 2016). These programs are intended to provide early education to children to prepare them for kindergarten and future school success.

Voluntary Pre-Kindergarten (VPK) is a state-funded program in some states, such as Florida. It is intended to provide free educational opportunities for children four years old before kindergarten (Basso et al., 2016). The program is made available by public and commercial providers, and the teaching follows state-mandated guidelines that concentrate on educational, social, and emotional growth.

PK and VPK programs prepare children for kindergarten by providing early education focusing on literacy, numeracy, and social-emotional development (Rodriguez, 2013). They also offer opportunities for children to interact with their peers, build their language and communication skills, and develop their cognitive abilities while providing parents and caregivers with support and resources.

          Head-start services are for a limited number of children and their families in the United States; Head Start is a federal program that offers a wide range of early childhood education, health, nutrition, and intervention services (Hines, 2017). Initiated in 1965 as part of the War on Poverty, the program is now administered by the Department of Health and Human Services and helps more than a million children annually.

These services are designed to enhance students’ cognitive knowledge and foster their social and emotional growth to prepare them for school success (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). The program provides early childhood education that includes activities that help children, help develop social and emotional, as well as language, reading, and numeracy skills (Pianta et al., 2021). The program also provides health and nutrition services, such as physical exams, dental care, and nutrition education, to help ensure that children are healthy and ready to learn.

Small group reading is a teaching approach in which a teacher works with a small group of students, typically 4-6, to provide targeted and differentiated instruction in reading (Kikas et al., 2018). It is an effective way to provide individualised instruction, adapt to the varying demands of children, and carefully track their development.

Teacher-directed reading is a teaching approach in which the teacher actively guides students through the reading process, providing explicit instruction, modelling, and feedback (Kikas et al., 2018). The approach emphasises the teacher’s role in leading and directing the reading instruction and the student’s role in actively following and engaging with the instruction. During teacher-directed reading, the teacher introduces a new text or concept, provides background knowledge, and seeks a reading purpose (Lerkkanen et al., 2016). Then the teacher modelled the reading process, demonstrating strategies such as how to make predictions, identify main ideas, or use context clues. Next, the students practised these strategies with the teacher’s guidance, asking and answering questions, making connections, and applying their learned strategies.

Computer-based instruction refers to using computers and technology to deliver educational content and assessments to students. Computer-based instruction has become increasingly popular as technology has advanced and becomes more widely available (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). In Pre-K and Kindergarten (VK), computer-based instruction has been used to teach various subjects, including reading. The use of computers in early childhood education has been found to have both positive and negative effects on student learning and development.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

 Introduction

Scholarly materials on improving attention spans in the reading of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs shows that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development. Studies have found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008; Wasik et al., 2009). Research has also shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002).

Several studies have also investigated the effectiveness of different strategies in promoting the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities. For example, parental involvement in reading activities has been shown to positively affect children’s reading skills, vocabulary, and comprehension (Karweit, 1989; Wasik et al., 2009). Additionally, studies have found that computer-based instruction can effectively improve reading skills, especially for students with poor reading skills (Kim et al., 2018).

This section will synthesise the existing research on attention span, reading activities, and pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs. The review will focus on identifying the effective interventions that improve attention span in young children, as well as exploring the underlying mechanisms and processes that contribute to changes in attention span (Basso et al., 2016). The review will also examine the factors that may influence the effectiveness of interventions, such as the age of the students, the setting in which the interventions are implemented, and the type and intensity of the interventions.

Theoretical Framework

Theories on Reading Development

Different theories on reading development among childrens in Pre-kindergarten Headstart Programs provide a description of the different stages through which students develop reading skills from early development stages to advanced levels. A study by Laws (2010) identifies that students start by relying on visual recognition of the entire written word and relate it to its pronunciation a stage identified as logographic stage. This phase relies on understanding each printed word together with its oral form. Afterwards, the children progress to alphabetic stage and can understand the world based on the knowledge from letter sounds.

Another theory is the Knowledge hypothesis by Anderson and Freebody which suggests that knowledge of words is a reflection of students’ background knowledge and a plan of the topic. Therefore understanding the meaning of phrases and words used within texts as well as the meaning of the word within the context of precise types of texts is integral in helping students to understand the text (Baker et al., 2014). On the contrary, Kintsch’s theory on discourse comprehension theory pinpoints that it is critical for adults to pose questions to their children and to develop activities that will stimulate deep thinking and aid to construct diverse knowledge of vocabularly. Deep learning requires integration of prior information with the new knowledge and the outcome is the prowes to use the newly information within new contexts (Baker et al., 2014).

Theory of Attention

Unusual is the notion that children exhibit signs of attention. A child may find it challenging to be in an environment with several readily distracting stimuli. It takes work to concentrate on more than just one item. Rojas (2016) asserts that many individuals frequently fail to pay attention. They need help to maintain their focus on what is most essential at any given time.

According to Brendamour & Chai (2016), paying attention involves six distinct components. Several examples include attention span, previewing and planning, selectivity and saliency evaluation, distractibility, alertness and arousal, self-monitoring and self-regulation, and attention. Awareness is the initial stage in attracting someone’s attention to the previously listed topics. This study argues that to concentrate. One must be actively engaged in an activity. The next step is exercising discretion. At any one moment, many stimuli are continuously entering the system (Brendamour & Chai, 2016). The brain must choose which of these goals should be prioritized. The ability to pick which organization-influencing actions to do is the “determination of salience.” This component is essential for daily tasks. The teacher would offer the essential instructions for the pupils to execute a task in class. Since writing all laws on paper is impossible, the brain must choose the most significant ones. The capacity to rapidly shift attention is the third need for attracting notice.

Attention requires the perseverance and stamina necessary to complete the task at hand. Like the requirement for physical energy to run a marathon, mental energy is required to maintain concentration while working. The next step includes preliminary planning and analysis. Before launching a project, it is essential to analyse all possible outcomes and choose the strategy that would provide the best results (Brendamour & Chai, 2016). Before raising their hands to respond to a question on the teacher’s presentation, students should carefully consider their answers and refrain from shouting. The next phase of responsibilities includes self-control and self-monitoring. This is an essential step, especially when a project is well along. Enhanced self-discipline and behaviour monitoring boost concentration.

Mackay (1973) aims to clarify and explain the information filtering process. Using the bottleneck approach, the author illustrated how the water flow reduces as the bottleneck grows narrower. According to the Broadbent’s attention model, it is difficult for a person to absorb several sources of sensory information simultaneously. Donald Broadbent pioneered the vast majority of data processing technologies. He conducted a study on air traffic controller operations. Broadbent conducted a “dichotic listening” study to understand this issue better. Mackay (1973) asserts that all input data is stored in a sensory buffer before being processed further and that one input is then selected based on its physical properties. Because our capacity to absorb information is limited, a filter has been devised to protect us from being exposed to overwhelming data. In addition, he asserts that unselected inputs are still there after the sensory buffer has been cleared. Broadbent was captivated by the processes that enable individuals to focus their attention (selective attention). He bombarded them with stimuli to achieve his goal. The data revealed unequivocally that individuals could concentrate on more than one activity simultaneously.

Consequently, the author developed the “filter” concept and the “single channel” technique. This method considers the sensory information that different physical qualities give. According to the research results, external stimuli are one of the most effective methods to boost a person’s capacity to concentrate for an extended time (Washington, 2017). The brain will be better able to focus and pay attention to the task at hand if the activity and instructions are presented one at a time. During a fine mobility task, such as threading a button onto a bottle, the brain may focus on a single action, such as picking up the button.

Further Research Needed

Further research on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs should build upon the foundation of previous studies while also seeking to address some of the limitations and gaps in the existing evidence (Vaughn et al., 2002). It can be done by replicating previous studies to confirm the effectiveness of various interventions and by conducting new studies that test different interventions or explore new perspectives on the problem (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007).

One critical variable that future research should consider is the role of individual differences in attention span and reading ability, as well as other factors that may contribute to these difficulties, such as socioeconomic status, parental involvement, and access to resources reference. By exploring these factors, researchers can understand the problem and develop more effective interventions considering individual students’ unique needs and circumstances.

Another important area for future research is the effectiveness of technology-based interventions in improving attention span and reading ability in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). While previous studies have shown that these interventions can be effective, much is still to be learned about the best way to use technology to support student learning and how these interventions can be integrated into existing educational programs and practices.

Finally, future research needs to address how to sustain the gains in attention span and reading ability achieved through various interventions (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). It will require long-term studies that track the outcomes of students over time, as well as research into how schools and educators can support and reinforce the gains achieved through these interventions. In conclusion, there is a clear need for further research on the problem of attention span in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs to build on the foundation of previous studies and address some of the limitations and gaps in the existing evidence (Vaughn et al., 2002). By exploring critical variables and important questions in this area, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the problem and develop more effective interventions that support the academic success of these young students (Basso et al., 2016).

Shortcomings of the Previous Research

It is crucial to evaluate the advantages of earlier studies and pinpoint their drawbacks to avoid them in future studies while reviewing the literature on increasing the attention spans of pre-kindergarten pupils in Head Start programs. By doing this, researchers may improve upon the shortcomings of earlier studies and build on their strengths. One of the areas for improvement of prior research in this area is a need for more consistency in measuring attention span and reading ability. It can make it difficult to compare the results of different studies and to draw accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of different interventions (Basso et al., 2016). To avoid this limitation, future research should use consistent measures and make efforts to standardise these measures across different studies.

Another limitation of previous research is that many studies have been conducted with small sample sizes, limiting their findings’ generalizability (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). To address this limitation, future research should aim to include larger sample sizes, especially when testing new interventions which may increase the power of the study and allowing more accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of these interventions (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007).

Additionally, much earlier research concentrated on rapid results after the intervention, such as attention span and reading skills (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). However, it is important also to consider the long-term outcomes of these interventions and how they may impact students over time. To address this limitation, future research should include longer-term follow-up assessments to track the sustainability of any gains in attention span and reading ability (Yoon et al., 2007).

On the other hand, some of the strengths should be investigated more in future studies. Using control groups, which helps to account for uncontrollable factors and provides more accurate evaluations of the efficacy of treatments, is one of these advantages (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Utilising randomised controlled trials, which improve the study’s internal validity and offer greater proof of the efficacy of therapies, is another strength.

In conclusion, by identifying the shortcomings of prior research and building upon their strengths, researchers can conduct more effective and robust studies on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Vaughn et al., 2002). By doing so, researchers can contribute to a growing body of knowledge in this area and provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of these young students.

Critiques of the Literature

The literature review is an important foundation for any research proposal, as it provides a comprehensive understanding of the existing evidence on a given topic. However, it is also important to critically evaluate the literature to identify any controversial methodological decisions that may need to be addressed in the proposal (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). This essay will critique the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs, highlighting some of the controversies and limitations of previous studies that need to be considered when designing a new study.

One of the controversies in the literature on this topic is the use of different measures to assess attention span and reading ability (Basso et al., 2016). While some studies have used standardised measures, others have used more informal assessments or subjective ratings by teachers or parents. This variability in measures can make it difficult to compare the results of different studies and draw accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of different interventions. As such, researchers need to carefully consider which measures to use in their study, considering the strengths and limitations of each measure, to ensure that their results are accurate and reliable (Basso et al., 2016).

Another controversy in the literature is the need for more consensus on the most effective interventions for improving attention span and reading ability in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Gathercole et al., 2008). Some studies have focused on providing additional educational resources, while others have focused on behavioural interventions, such as reward systems or educational games (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). With these interventions, variability makes it difficult to determine which approach is most effective, and researchers must consider this when designing their study.

Additionally, there needs to be long-term studies on the impact of interventions on this population’s attention span and reading ability. While some studies have shown positive short-term effects, it is still being determined whether these effects are sustainable over time or how they may impact students in the long term. (Wasik et al., 2009). As such, researchers need to consider the need for longer-term follow-up assessments to understand the impact of interventions on this population fully.

In conclusion, the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs highlights several controversies and limitations that need to be taken into consideration when designing a new study (Basso et al., 2016). By critically evaluating the literature, researchers can make informed decisions about the measures to use and the interventions to focus on. There is a need for longer-term follow-up assessments to contribute to a growing body of knowledge in this area which can  provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of these young students (Peck et al., 2005).

Factors Associated with Attention Problems in Preschoolers

It is believed that environmental (Washington, 2017) variables have a major role in influencing a child’s behavior development. Research by Biederman and Faraone (2002) revealed a genetic link among early developmental variances in newborns’ attentional control. In a recent study that followed over 2,000 Canadian children from 5 months to 8 years, preterm birth, low birth weight, prenatal tobacco exposure, non-intact family, young maternal age, paternal history of antisocial behaviour, and maternal depression were found to be the strongest early predictors of attention problems. In this longitudinal study, children between the ages of 5 months and eight years were investigated (Washington, 2017). Similar to the preceding example, a recent Israeli study discovered that various child developmental characteristics were substantially associated with the later occurrence of ADHD (from birth to one month.

Among these risk variables were a family history of social problems and ADHD, a lower maternal education level, and an older maternal age. Between the ages of 3 and 18 months, a smaller head size, a delay in reaching motor and verbal milestones, and a demanding temperament were all highly associated with the later development of ADHD. As part of the Family Life Project, researchers studied the behaviour of children aged three to five. Their objective was to determine the risk variables for attention deficit disorders. They concluded that a single latent factor remained throughout the preschool years and triggered the appearance of symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. They also noticed that the degree of education of the carers was the greatest predictor of symptom severity (Mackay, 1973).

Impact of Media Use on a Child’s Attention Span

Since the beginning of this decade, concerns concerning young children’s use of screen media and the link between this behaviour and the appearance of attention issues at a younger age have progressively increased. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth indicates a correlation between daily television watching between the ages of 1 and 3 and attention issues at age 7. Some study indicates that brief exposure to television may have an immediate effect on the cognitive development of youngsters (Mackay, 1973).

According to newly published research, children who had just seen a fast-paced television show—specifically, a well-known animated cartoon about an underwater sponge—performed lower on the Tower of Hanoi test than children who had not seen the program (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). It is unknown if increased television viewing adds to or accelerates a reduction in attention span. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) advises against restricting screen time for infants younger than two years of age and against permitting older children to watch more than one to two hours of high-quality media daily (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). A study by Dunckley (2015) pinpoint that indeed increased screen time is directly associated with increased child’s mood swings and deteriorate attention span as well as language and cognitive development.

Problems with Focus in Preschoolers

Children’s attention problems are often a feature of early infancy. Up to 40% of preschool-aged children already have attention problems that are serious enough to worry parents and preschool teachers (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). Between 3% and 15% of people in community samples, including those who do not meet the requirements for an ADHD diagnosis, exhibit signs of inattention. Mahone (2005) observed that the percentage of clinical referrals is approaching or above 50% (Mahone, 2005). For instance, up to 72.7% of toddlers are labelled as “motor-driven” or “constantly active” (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). When toddlers exhibit inattention, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is seldom identified (ADHD). It may be a sign of various illnesses or ailments, such as hearing loss, language difficulties, intellectual disabilities, or other psychopathologies, that coexist with ADHD. It is more difficult to identify “disordered” attention, given the variance in caregiver perceptions of attention and the prevalence of ADHD symptoms in this age range (Mahone, 2005).

However, inattention is a common trait unrelated to early childhood development (Mahone, 2005). Preschoolers with attention issues have been better detected and treated during the last 20 years, especially those disorders that share symptoms with ADHD, such as distractibility and hyperactivity. The United States and other countries are becoming more interested in this (Mahone, 2005). Some theories contend that early detection and treatment of attention problems reduce the negative impacts of pediatric illnesses, making it simpler to get the right diagnosis or, more crucially, proving that no diagnostic is required.

The most common condition seen in preschoolers is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and prevalence estimates show that it is becoming increasingly common. Two percent of children in a sample of 38,666 general pediatric patients under the age of five were found to have ADHD, according to Mahone et al., (2005), even though Connor (2000) claimed that the incidence might reach 59% in child psychiatric clinics. Participants in each of these studies were under the age of five. Subsequent research assessed 200 children under six who had been sent to an outpatient mental health clinic, and 86% met the diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Compared to their generally developing classmates, preschoolers with poor attentional abilities are substantially more likely to have social, developmental, and academic challenges. These worries could be linked to many developmental deficiencies.

Childhood attention problems are linked to teens’ poor social development and a higher risk of requiring emergency medical care (Mahone et al., 2005). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in early childhood has been linked to later academic failure and grade retention, even at subthreshold levels (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Six years later, children with behavioural issues are more likely to fulfil the official diagnostic criteria for ADHD. By 18, these children are far more likely than other children to experience sadness and suicidal thoughts. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention revealed that between 1998 and 2009, one in eleven American children between the ages of 5 and 17 had been given an ADHD diagnosis (CDC).

In contrast, during the last 20 years, there has been a sharp increase in the proportion of young women with attention problems. A recent, extensive epidemiological study including 3,907 children showed that 49% of females and 51% of boys had ADHD. The research found that 8.7% of children met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for ADHD making it difficult to discern between attentional issues affecting normally developing children and those specifically linked with ADHD (or other co-occurring illnesses) until the age of four. However, early identification and treatment of preschoolers’ attention deficit disorders may lessen some negative effects. Although early identification and treatment of toddlers’ attention issues may lessen their negative effects, this is the case (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Studies show that future reading, spelling, and arithmetic difficulties are more probable in children with the inattentive ADHD subtype. However, youngsters who initially exhibit unusually impulsive and hyperactive traits are more likely to acquire ADHD later. While Egger and colleagues found that the inattentive subtype of ADHD is present in fewer than one in 1,000 preschoolers in the general population, other studies have questioned the importance of this subtype throughout the preschool years.

Others have questioned the applicability of the Hyperactive-Impulsive subtype of ADHD to young children (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Therefore, it is essential to establish exact, impartial methods for assessing newborns’ attention. Based on individuals who use the criterion’s expectations, diagnostic thresholds are often noticed (such as parents and teachers). As a result, the definition of a “disorder” may alter over time. Additionally, relying only on a child’s parents or teachers to describe their symptoms might result in an overdiagnosis.

Additionally, fewer kids are diagnosed with ADHD when the impairment criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association—APA, 2000) are carefully followed (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007). Although ADHD is currently classified as a categorical phenomenon in the DSM-IV-TR, it is anticipated that these changes will be made in the DSM-V. Due to the potential that the condition displays dimensional oscillations rather than a category item, this is the circumstance (Mahone & Schneider, 2012).

Attention and Cognitive Development in Kindergarten

The development of the neurological system may be seen beginning two to three weeks after conception (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007). The brain’s attentional control mechanisms are among the earliest to emerge and continue to grow until early adulthood. The route of functional development, however, does not follow a linear pattern; rather, it moves along a region-specific path that reflects the maturity of several brain systems. A child’s brain achieves 80% of an adult’s size by age two (Delevan, 2009). When a child reaches two, myelination and synapse development stop occurring, and neurons start forming complicated dendritic trees. While the main auditory cortex begins to develop at three months old, the prefrontal cortex only matures at fifteen months.

After age five, cortical architecture, ongoing neuronal growth, and experience-dependent pruning of ineffective synapses are the hallmarks of brain development. Synaptic density will eventually decrease to 60% of its prior high (Delevan, 2009). The dynamic process of moulding and limiting skills via experience, which may change the expression of genes, and a process of active brain growth, which is mostly genetically determined, impact the functional development of attention throughout the preschool years (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007). According to (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007), experiential canalisation is a theory outlining how biology and experience combine to provide useful development. This “shaping” occurs throughout normal development due to enhanced myelination and cortical thinning. It happens inadvertently all through development and is linked to improvements in attentional control. Developmental issues with attention, such as ADHD and others, may result from aberrant pruning fueled by experience.

The prefrontal cortex must undergo a lengthy process that starts early childhood and lasts far into adolescence to acquire regulated (top-down) attention. The prefrontal cortex experiences several quick alterations at this age that last well into early adulthood (Luna et al., 2001). Evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex develops and connects throughout early life, resulting in top-down attention management and other “higher” cognitive functions. Electrophysiology is the most popular technique for assessing infants and children’s prefrontal development. Thus, frontal EEG power, thought to indicate neural excitability, is associated with regulated attention in infants.

The development of a person’s attentional capacity is often assessed behaviorally during the first year of life using several visual attention paradigms (Luna et al., 2001). Frequent, protracted visual fixations characterise the first three months of a baby’s existence. It is due to the visual attraction that young toddlers have for objects with curves and edges, like faces or checkerboards, for example. At this age, infants find it difficult to concentrate on anything beyond what is in front of them. The unrealised developmental potential of the parietal lobes is thought to be the root of this problem, and pathways from the basal ganglia to the superior colliculus have begun to enlarge (Luna et al., 2001). Habituation and paired comparison are two common experimental paradigms with infants. The tools used to gauge a baby’s growth currently encompass variations of both concepts.

The emergence of an infant’s preference for novel experiences is thought to be linked with the development of the parietal cortex and the cortical visual system, typically occurring between the ages of four and six months. Infants reach this stage when they stop staring at things for lengthy periods. The duration of the gaze lengthens between 7 and 12 months and changes from automatic to conscious control. This growth continues throughout the toddler and preschool years (Rossi et al., 2001).

According to their gender, boys and girls develop brain networks that aid attentional management at noticeably different rates (Rossi et al., 2001). Folklore holds that females start school a year sooner than boys because they are three weeks more developed at birth (Delevan, 2009). Although there has been less focus on gender differences in problem behaviour in infancy and the early years, by the age of 4, boys tend to behave more aggressively and impulsively than girls. Due to their earlier neurobiological, cognitive, motor, and social development in early infancy, females may exhibit certain behaviours that delay the onset of some ADHD symptoms in young children. The quantity of white matter increased linearly between the ages of 4 and 20. In contrast, the changes in grey matter were discovered to be nonlinear, regionally specific, and different for boys and girls. Men’s brains had 10% more gray matter than women’s, although women’s peak development occurred considerably younger (10.5 year’s vs 14 years).

Significance of Children’s Concentration-Persistence for Future Success

Throughout childhood, various social and academic outcomes have been related to several attention spans and perseverance characteristics. It has been shown, for instance, that attention span persistence and related concepts such as self-regulation, executive function, and effortful control may be used to predict more severe social outcomes, such as social competence and maladjustment (Delevan, 2009). Furthermore, these components are essential for both social and emotional rehabilitation. Extensive research has shown, for instance, a correlation between attention span, perseverance, and associated attributes such as self-control (Duncan et al., 2007). The capacity of children to pay attention and endure challenging situations has always been assessed, even though different research has employed varied criteria and methods. Research on executive function, learning-related abilities, effortful control, and behavioural regulation will be helpful in improving knowledge in this area. Each of these investigations constructs and employs unique structures while considering attention span persistence.

A recent study has shown that attention span perseverance is a robust predictor of short-term performance outcomes, even after accounting for the student’s current level of achievement and other relevant traits, such as intelligence (Delevan, 2009). The researchers discovered, for instance, that changes in early behavioural management throughout the preschool year highly predicted changes in reading, mathematics, and vocabulary. Even when researchers considered individuals’ behavioural control and accomplishment starting points, this remained the case (Rossi et al., 2001). Children’s ability to manage their behaviour at the start of kindergarten was an outstanding predictor of their success in reading, mathematics, and vocabulary at the end of the school year, as well as their improvement in arithmetic skills, according to a comparative study. Another research found favourable relationships between young children’s attention spans, cognitive capacities, and achievement levels (Duncan et al., 2007). Reading and arithmetic competence between kindergarten and sixth grade and reading and math progress between kindergarten and second grade were strongly predicted by a child’s learning-related skills in kindergarten. It was unaffected by the child’s IQ, early achievement, and other environmental circumstances (Duncan et al., 2007).

Several components of attention management abilities accurately predict academic achievement and long-term performance. Attention between the ages of 5 and 6, with an average effect size ranging from 0.08 to 0.11 for reading and mathematics, was a strong predictor of reading and arithmetic ability between kindergarten and the beginning of puberty. This circumstance negatively impacted reading and mathematics (Duncan et al., 2007). Even though it was conducted on adolescents, recent research by (Yoon et al., 2007) offers more evidence of the significance of attention span persistence, also known as task persistence, for future performance. Task perseverance in early adolescence at age 13 reliably predicted males’ middle-aged income, occupational level, and educational attainment, with impact sizes ranging from 0.08 to 0.34 for occupational level. Important studies have shown that early self-control, operationalised by perseverance and attention span, predicted adult outcomes such as physical health, drug dependency, income, and criminal conduct (Yoon et al., 2007). In addition, research has connected concentration deficits to poorer academic achievement and performance standards. After adjusting for various background characteristics, such as the child’s IQ, recent research found that teacher evaluations of concentration issues at age six strongly predicted math and reading achievement at age seventeen.

This research demonstrates that attention and persistence are critical in infancy and reliable predictors of various social and academic accomplishments in adulthood. Overall, these findings support the notion that toddlers need these skills. Important life objectives, such as graduating from college, depend highly on concentration and perseverance under adversity. Another study indicates that a parent’s socioeconomic status (SES), cognitive ability, past academic accomplishment, and educational and professional aspirations substantially affect a child’s intellectual development and academic performance (Yoon et al., 2007). Along with parental socioeconomic status, early cognitive ability and academic performance, gender, and age, we expected that early attention span perseverance would be a major and substantial predictor of future accomplishment and college completion.

In summary, the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs highlights the importance of this issue and provides a foundation for further research (Basso et al., 2016). However, the literature also highlights controversies and limitations, such as variability in measures used, lack of consensus on effective interventions, and need for longer-term studies (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). It is important for researchers to critically evaluate the literature to address these limitations and make informed decisions about their study (Kim et al., 2018). By doing so, researchers can contribute to the growing body of knowledge in this area and provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of young students in Head Start programs (Kerns et al.,1999).

Strategies to Improve Attention Spans

Various strategies can be employed to help improve the attention spans of pre-K students in Head-start programs (Antzaka et al., 2017; Armstrong, 2017). First, selecting high-quality materials with interesting topics and engaging illustrations is important. Additionally, text sections should be kept short, with frequent breaks in between (Bauer& Schanzenbach, 2016). Teachers can also provide activities to help support the reading material, such as drawing or colouring activities related to the text. Furthermore, providing students with positive feedback and recognition for their efforts can keep them motivated and engaged. Also, allowing students to share their thoughts and ideas about the material can help further engage them and keep their attention.

Teacher-Directed Reading

Research affirms a positive relationship between affluent experiences during early childhood and later language growth and academic success. Many experts are familiar with the relationship between child language development and parent input; however, much is yet to be learned regarding the relationship between a child’s language growth outcomes and an educator’s language input. Classroom-oriented research is required since the existing research illustrates the differences in the impact of parent and teacher input in association with children’s language development. Most of the children’s vocabulary development and teacher’s language use are satisfactory during book reading interaction. However, there is minimal attention to other forms of a classroom setting (Kirk et al., 2014). Various efforts to alter teachers’ language practices via large-scale intervention yield limited success.

Significance of Considering the Setting

An essential phase to sustain high-quality instructional relations should understand how the entire process can be made neutral without any involvement. Teacher-directed activities can form a classroom environment which provides abundant data regarding implementing superior instructional interaction in Pre-K Students in a Head-start Program setting. Scholarly evidence identifies that pre-k students spend approximately 37% of their school day performing teacher-directed events not limited to literacy, math, science, and other events that are not directly linked to any precise context (Bames et al., 2020). The student spends the rest of the day doing other activities, such as mealtimes and playtime. The different form of contexts avails numerous opportunities for the teacher to instruct, interact and engage with events. Teacher-directed activities can be more intentional, especially when the teacher is executing strategies to enhance the child’s cognitive and language skills. Research indicates that Pre-k educators are more likely to use a thought-provoking language with students during book-reading sessions than free play or mealtimes. Additionally, the teachers are most likely to deliver excellent instructional interaction during sessions that involve large-group surroundings, unlike during meals, play, and routine settings (Blair & Razza, 2007). These activities are focused on enhancing teacher-child association, thus increasing chances for high-quality instructional relationships.

Contextual Changes in Instructional Materials

This section will explore the importance of improving the value of instructional materials to augment learning and teaching. The background of teacher-directed activities can be broken down into sub-contexts depending with the coverage of instructions. These sub-contexts can be a prosperous source of introducing variation in the superiority of instructional interaction. An activity like reading is an example of a teacher-directed practice that different scholars have researched, given its potential to offer language-based cognitive learning during the head start of the program. Pre-k students are expected to experience superior coaching during the storybook reading session because of the mutual routine of mutual book reading, as it designates a diverse group of pedagogical techniques widely accepted for interacting with students in a text. Interactive shared storybook reading sessions should contain techniques such as requesting the students to predict events happening in a particular book before they can read it. The teacher will work with them in discussing the story to aid in understanding and developing relations to the child’s lives and explain the significance of different vocabularies used in the text. These strategies and other activities can play an integral role in engaging children in high-order thinking within the story’s context. To determine the efficiency of this strategy, a study was performed by Hysell (2013) involving pre-k classrooms that serve low-income children. The scholar evaluated the different types of questions educators ask during class activities. The teacher posed several cognitively perplexing and open-ended questions throughout the storybook reading session related to other types of teacher-directed events such as mealtime. The researchers found that storybook reading was providing higher-quality instructional association than other learning tasks.

Science learning is the other sub-context that can facilitate higher-quality instructional association. Posing scientific-related questions has been defined as the attempts to enable pre-k students to understand the natural world around them based on proof. To effectively attract the maximum reading span of the students during this sub-context, the teacher will focus on asking questions that will capture the students’ interest in high-order thinking. Research proves that pre-k students should not be exempted from learning science because, with the necessary support from adults, they can engage in science practices and develop a theoretical understanding as they navigate their environment (White et al., 2020). The current curriculum and state standards for kindergarten include different science concepts such as weather and plants.

The next category of sub-context is math instruction. Teachers can facilitate conversations with the children using informal and formal instruction to enhance their understanding and skills on different concepts important to improve mathematical accomplishment (Klein et al., 2008). These types of interaction can be linked to lower skills, including labeling numbers, counting objects, integrating counting grounded on techniques for tallying, requesting children to recap simple patterns, and offering opportunities to categorize objects into their respective groups. Recent research identifies that many pre-k school teachers focus on engaging their students to lower-level mathematics knowledge and rarely use conversation-based mathematical skills. The morning meeting is an entire group activity that marks the beginning of a preschool day. Even if this sub-context does not provide students with an opportunity to learn a particular content within the area of instruction, it qualifies as a teacher-directed event. This activity is significant for early childhood curriculum, and many schools are already integrating morning meetings or circle time as a daily routine. During this time, the teacher will have an opportunity to orient the students on the activities of the day and lead them in routines, including greeting one another, singing, talking about the weather of the day, taking attendance, and rehearsing academic skills (Bierman et al., 2008). Recent research assessing the effectiveness of circle time identified that the teacher could preside during this time of the day, posing several open-ended questions and introducing interactive exchanges. This differs from the traditional circle setting, where students typically recite and memorize the day’s routine.

Apprenticeship in the Classroom Language

Usage-based theory of language development recognizes the impact of linguistic input in early childhood language development (Tomasello, 2009). Adequate groups of complex language must be availed for children to understand equally complex speech. Pre-k students first get exposure to home registers, which can be different from academic registers they will come across in the classroom setting, as the two differ in content and involvement. A home register takes the form of conceptualization of informal talk. It usually discusses matters relating to the tasks, stresses interpersonal relationships, and is similarly common among family speakers (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). This differs substantially from the language used in the classroom setting as it allows the student to experience a seamless transition of academic knowledge. It differs among speakers and relies on lexical aspects to encourage precision and clarity. When the academic register is at the linguistic level, the register comprises academic language characterized by a lot of vocabulary and terms used among specific fields or across various academic disciplines. Vocabulary used in the academic field is employed on rare occasions in casual conversations, although it is found in large volumes within academic contexts. Therefore, when pre-k students in Head-start Programs are exposed to a more significant amount of sophisticated or academic vocabulary will become known to academic vocabulary, which will help them increase their reading span in different subjects such as math, science, religious education, and social studies in higher levels of education. When the register is at the discourse level, the topic or content of the talk will widely focus on the exchange of disciplinary content knowledge in different subjects, including science, math, social studies, and language arts. Preschool children can become proficient in their home language once they enter the school but can have varied comprehension of the classroom register due to a lack of experience before. Different ethnographic and quantitative studies identify that children raised in low-income homes need more experience with academic vocabulary and register specifically. Proficiency in academic language is directly related to outstanding academic success, particularly in association with reading and understanding comprehension. Therefore, the children who are enrolled in pre-k classes with vast familiarity with the academic registry can have a considerable advantage in understanding classroom conversations and examinations compared to the students with less experience with the academic vocabulary and register (Tyler, 2010).

Hybridity and the Growth of Third Spaces

The pre-kindergarten class setting is usually made of numerous poly-contextual activities and spaces. This is different from the more formalized spaces and structures of pre-K school settings, which is characterized by whiteboards, desks, and reading table, as the spaces of the pre-K school classroom are made of spaces to read, play, nap, and eat. These activities and places encourage different language registers, developing rich learning objectives and the execution of social practices. One outstanding space in many Head Start class settings is the eating area. The Head Start programs provide a meal to the students which are served in a family style and within the confinement of the classroom. Students and their teachers sit around this eating area during lunch and breakfast and eat their meals with the students. The food is passed around in serving dishes, and the teachers teach the students how to serve themselves (LiBetti, 2019). The practice is guided by the Head Start policy, which provisions that every pre-kindergarten must supply the students with nutritious meals daily and provide clear guidance on appropriate family-style meal structure. Therefore, this area is unique because it acts as the bridge between school-home practices and can thus be considered a hybrid space. Hybrid spaces usually comprise different elements of both school and home practices by taking the form of similarity in registers, activities, and social traditions. These spaces are categorized within the child’s zones of proximal growth as they use familiar practices to interact in conversations and meal routines within the relatively newer classroom settings (Nash et al., 2022). This form of hybridity can create a conducive environment for language development since mealtime talk between the students and the teacher can support children to transition into the classroom register successfully. In this third space, the teachers and students have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the discourse patterns of their communities and homes to converse and establish academic language and knowledge supported by the conducive classroom environment (Gillula et al., 2011).

Computer-based Instruction

Research proves that computer-based interaction has the potential to intensify pre-k students’ reading span due to the ease within which it can be integrated with the school settings and the seamless ability for its users to customize it to suit the different needs of the student (Hercules et al., 2006). Another benefit of this model is that it develops a child’s cognitive skills and keep track of their academic progress in various subjects such as language and math.

Training Programs Offered by Computer-based Instruction

Executive Functions Training

These programs are classified under a group of overall purpose mechanisms that control cognition and action. The program comprises three interrelated, albeit distinguished, components that make the consumer move back and forth between different operations, tasks, and mental sets. The user also updates the program, which is a process that needs monitoring and active manipulation of working memory representations and reservation, which is the ability to inhibit an automatic, dominant, or prepotent response intentionally (Huffstetter et al., 2010). These cognitive skills have been identified to have a positive relationship with different socioemotional and academic outcomes, including adaptive learning of related behaviors, mathematical accomplishment, and social competencies.

During the school sessions, kindergarten students must encounter social and academic problems that need them to integrate executive functions successfully. An example is when a student needs to switch from one subject to the other and change from one academic task to the other and from one skill to another to respond to the instruction provided by the teacher. The student must also manipulate and memorize academic information and drop unnecessary information while adding new information to their existing skill set (Juhasz & Boyce, 2022). Nonetheless, children need to showcase robust and automatic responses, such as avoiding getting distracted by their friends and retaining their attention on what the teacher is saying. These executive skills empower children to learn self-regulation from certain behaviors while focusing on improving their academic performance.

Executive functions are central in guaranteeing the student’s successful reading skills development. Therefore, different training programs have been established to empower the children’s executive function skills, starting with the Head-start program. For example, the mind curriculum implements different tools oriented on harmonizing activities embedded within the school curriculum and is not limited to tasks to self-regulate confidential speech. The program also comprises intense dramatic role-playing and enables attention and memory of the concepts learned in class. Bierman et al. (2020) performed research in one school that involved children aged between 4 and 5 years who had received pre-k education for one year. Their teachers had spent about 80% of the school day promoting executive function skills (Hindman et al., 2012). In another school, children were assigned to act out tasks and collaborate with their teachers to achieve specified aims. In both incidences, the participants involved in the study were preschoolers, and the study’s outcome indicated that the students were able to improve their executive function skills. The research identifies that the drawback of this program includes that implementing these types of programs requires highly trained teachers and psychologists to introduce methodological transitions to the academic system successfully. Another limitation is that integrating these programs in pre-kindergarten schools can consume a lot of resources and precise reforms to be implemented by education policymakers.

Math School-based Programs

Other than executive function empowerment, mathematical interventions have been linked to improving student academic excellence. For instance, Johnson et al. (2020) developed a computer-based program within which the trained tutors would empower a child’s mathematical skill by placing them in small groups and working with them in integrating different strategies such as thinking aloud, modeling, error correction, and guided practice. The results of the study revealed that there were meaningful improvements in the children’s mathematical skills and success levels. Another study by Cohen-Vogel et al. (2022) revealed that children’s mathematics knowledge could be strengthened by integrating three training techniques, including teachers. This enables them to deliver training that inclines towards empowering the child’s mathematical knowledge. The training would also enable the teachers to successfully implement these interventions and guide parents to assist the students with mathematical assignments assigned to them to complete at home. Even with these improvements, the different types of training needs teachers to prepare general assignments which will need customized teachings to suit the educational needs of each student. However, relying on computerized activities enables every student to progress at their own pace. Also, computerized mathematics can incorporate a mathematics game relatable to the individual child’s routine and be adapted to meet the precise level of the child’s performance.

Parental Involvement During Family Mealtime Conversation

Implementing a school-based parental involvement program is extremely important because numerous social scientists uphold that parental engagement is one of the most potent forces to amplify the school outcome, especially the pre-kindergarten. Many sociologists and educators uphold that parental involvement in modern society can be particularly salient given the different sociological pressures facing children, the heightened family dissolution rates, and the child raised in two-parent working families. These aspects are common in the United States, although they are more prevalent among many families (Bierman et al., 2020). This is one thing that pushes the parent to become actively involved in their child’s education whenever possible. Active parental engagement has resulted in higher academic accomplishments than when parents remain sidelined. Indeed, current research supporting this conclusion is consistent and powerful among different scholarly findings precisely when the school integrates more than one subtle element of parental involvement. It is possible that while voluntary efforts of such modern family engagement produce positive outcomes, pre-kindergarten head start program is not 100% effective.

With these considerations, the theoretical framework to use in assessing the effectiveness of parental involvement programs in pre-kindergarten is relatively different from that of focusing on addressing the effectiveness of voluntary expression acquired from parental involvement. In the situation involving the vocational expression of the mother’s and father’s participation, the primary issue narrows down to the extent to which the parents can bring a difference in improving the test scores and grades of their little ones. When it comes to parental involvement, many social scientists, both the proponents and opponents of the motion, agree that parental contribution can make a lot of difference along these lines of thinking. More consensus is needed when responding to formal programs by including parents actively in their children’s education. The argument instead shifts to whether the schools can assist parents, particularly the disinterested parents, to improve their children’s performance. The importance of this type of theoretical debate was recently debated by Teacher’s College Record, where questions about whether schools can successfully train parents on how they can actively engage in their child’s education (Hindman et al., 2012). Another question posed is whether there are effective strategies that can motivate parents who appear unbothered to participate.

Numerous studies identify substantial evidence linking a child’s receptive and expressive vocabulary development and family mealtime conversations. Since the historical time, family mealtime conversations have always been perceived as culturally derived subjects that differ depending on the content, nature and type of talks families have across social classes, ethnicities and races. Conversations held during family meal time provide the parents and children with an opportunity to explore different events that are happening currently, get updated on family activities, plan events, solve problems and develop suitable etiquette. Most of these roles occur via an extensive discourse comprising explanations and narratives (Hysell, 2013). Adults can take advantage of this extended discourse with their children which has been linked to an increment in the ability of the child to learn vocabularies since more extended conversations contain detailed coverage of topics and use sophisticated or academic vocabulary. In addition, mealtime conversations involve the use of complex language that describes events, considers different hypotheticals, and develops a wide variety of participants, which can help the child learn how they can connect the different elements in their environment to strengthen their reading abilities in class settings.

Types of Parental Involvement Programs to Benefit Students

Assessing the programs that can enable parents to become more involved in their student’s education is essential because it not only supports the impact of these programs but it brings clarity on the types of elements of the programs that can produce the most meaningful impact . This type of information is essential for parents and teachers to understand to ensure that every parent can positively impact their child’s life. If the teachers have clear information on the situations that can bring them closer to the parents, then pre-kindergarten education could be more effective.

One of the most effective strategies for involvement is engaging the parent and the child in shared reading and appointing parents to check in with their child’s homework. Another strategy is forming social media groups to allow teachers to communicate with one another and form partnerships to solve problems facing their children (Juhasz & Boyce, 2022). The government is focusing on integrating situation-specific parental involvement within Head Start training, producing a significant impact that could engage them in the long term. Voluntary actions of parental participation are linked to tremendous educational results. The involuntary parental behaviors have been pinpointed to be empowered by the encouragement of the school. However, the impact sizes that arise from involuntary parental involvement cannot equate to the outcomes of voluntary parent participation. Active participation is more effective because it allows both the teacher and the parent to work on a specified goal to help their child achieve the best.

As previously noted, the questions posed on the Teacher’s College Record featuring a social scientist asking essential questions on the effectiveness of salient elements of voluntary parental participation are adequately teachable to the essential elements of the school-oriented involvement programs. Based on the outcomes by different scholars, parental involvement has the most significant outcomes. The study has significant programs intended to encourage parental support for their children’s schooling, which are positively related to accomplishment for children. According to Cstro et al., (2004), these analyses emerged effect sizes that were typically small compared to those in other studies that surveyed voluntary parental involvement. Parents are already excited towards supporting the progress of education for their children. There is a positive relationship between programs that parents have been given active involvement and educational results and they are suggesting that the process can become casual. This means that academic achievement in the future will be fine with the presence of parental engagement programs. Instead, the reverse will be accurate.

 Nonetheless, other research findings identify that mothers and fathers who provide vast amounts of support for their children will experience a more positive impact compared to the parents who only agree to participate in their child’s program because it demands them to do so. Therefore, future studies must assess whether students can benefit from this involvement even in higher learning institutions. Some studies identify that some academically weak students suffer greatly when their parents are not involved in their education (Karweit, 1989). Encouraging parents to become more involved in their child’s education through the aforementioned ways will spawn a considerable improvement in their child’s reading span and general outcomes even in later years.

Conclusion

In conclusion, attention span in reading is an important factor in literacy development in pre-K students (Brown et al., 2005). To help improve the attention spans of pre-K students in Head-start programs, it is important to focus on selecting high-quality materials with interesting topics and engaging illustrations, as well as providing students with activities to support the reading material, positive feedback and recognition, and an opportunity to share their thoughts and ideas (Barkley, 2002). With these strategies, pre-K students in Head-start programs can be given the best chance at success.

Research Question Considerations

Clearly defined research questions guide the study and ensure that the findings are directly relevant to the problem. In improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs, several key questions must be addressed (Gathercole et al., 2008; Alvarado et al., 2017).

1. What are the underlying causes of short attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Wasik et al., 2009)? This question is crucial in understanding why some children struggle with attention in the classroom (Vaughn, 2002). To address this question, researchers need to consider various factors that contribute to attention span, such as biological, environmental, social, and psychological factors.

Biological factors such as genetics, sleep patterns, and nutrition can affect attention span. Environmental factors, such as the quality of early childhood education and the level of stimulation provided in the learning environment, can also impact (Hines, 2017; Ali et al., 2019). Social factors, such as family dynamics, social support, and community resources, may also play a role. Psychological factors, such as executive function and emotional regulation, may be critical in understanding the underlying causes of short attention spans in pre-kindergarten students (Raver, 2002; Pashapoo et al., 2018).

Researchers will likely need to collect data from various sources, including but not limited to parent and teacher surveys, academic assessments, and observations of children in the classroom (Raver, 2002). The data collected will then need to be analysed using statistical methods to determine the relative impact of each of these factors on attention span (Wasik et al., 2009). This information can then be used to develop targeted interventions to improve attention span and academic performance in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs.

2. What interventions are effective in improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Raver, 2002)? This question is important because it will help to identify the most effective strategies for addressing this problem and improving academic outcomes for these students.
3. What are the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs (Raver, 2002)? Attention span is an essential aspect of learning, and it is crucial to understand how interventions to improve it can impact academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students (Vaughn, 2002).

Pre-kindergarten students are in a crucial stage of their development and are starting to lay the foundation for their future academic careers (Gathercole et al., 2008). Thus, it is essential to understand the impact of interventions to improve attention span on their academic performance and Success (Wasik et al., 2009). This information can provide valuable insights into the development of early childhood education programs, particularly in Head-start programs, where many children from low-income families receive their education. The research question also highlights the importance of considering the long-term effects of interventions (Raver, 2002). While short-term gains in attention span may be observed, it is essential to understand the sustainability of these gains and their impact on academic performance and success over time. Such information can improve the development of early childhood education programs and guide future research in this area.

4. How does parental involvement specifically impact the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities? The role of parental involvement in a child’s education cannot be overstated (Gathercole et al., 2008). The quality and quantity of parental involvement can profoundly impact a child’s academic performance and Success (Gathercole et al., 2008).

In the case of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, it is important to understand how parental involvement impacts their attention span. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). It is a crucial area of inquiry, as attention span plays a crucial role in learning and development, particularly during the early years of a child’s education.

To understand the impact of parental involvement on attention span in pre-kindergarten students, it is necessary to consider a range of factors that may influence this relationship (Raver, 2002). For example, the quality of parent-child interactions, the type of support provided by parents, and the level of engagement of parents in their child’s reading activities are all factors that may impact attention span (Pianta et al., 2021). Factors such as the child’s temperament, cultural background, and socioeconomic status may also impact this relationship.

By exploring the impact of parental involvement on attention span in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, the study can contribute to a deeper understanding of the importance of parental involvement in early childhood education and provide practical insights into how to improve the educational experiences of young children (Gathercole et al., 2008). This knowledge can inform the development of effective interventions and programs aimed at improving attention span and academic performance in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, ultimately contributing to the success and well-being of these children (Raver, 2002).

In summary, the study has proposed well-defined research questions, allowing for better insights in addressing the problem area and make meaningful contributions to the literature (Rapport et al., 2001). By addressing these questions, the study will provide valuable insights into the factors contributing to short attention spans and effective strategies for addressing this issue in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Raver, 2002). Additionally, the research questions provide a comprehensive and focused direction for the study, and their answers can contribute significantly to the body of knowledge in early childhood education (Pianta et al., 2021). By exploring the long-term effects of interventions aimed at improving attention span, the study can provide valuable insights into the development of early childhood education programs and help improve pre-kindergarten students’ academic performance and Success in Head-start programs.

Attention span in reading is a critical factor in literacy development in pre-K students. To ensure that students in a Head-start program have the best chance at success, it is important to focus on strategies to improve their attention spans in reading (Baue & Schanzenbach, 2016). This literature will provide an overview of the research on attention spans in reading and suggest various strategies to help improve the attention spans of pre-K students in Head-start programs (Strand et al., 2019).

Research has shown that several key factors can influence pre-K students’ attention spans in reading. One factor is the quality of the reading material (Kerns et al., 1999). Materials with interesting topics, engaging illustrations, and interactive activities can help to keep pre-K students engaged and help them sustain their attention spans (Kim et al., 2018). Another factor is the length of the reading material; shorter text sections are more likely to keep pre-K students engaged than longer ones. Furthermore, the amount of time spent on reading can affect the attention spans of pre-K students (Vaughn, 2002). Research has shown that students who read for short periods with frequent breaks can better sustain their attention spans than those who read for longer periods without breaks.

Research Questions

There is growing interest in understanding the type of effective strategies to increase attention of students in pre-k students enrolled in Head Start programs as a way of helping them build a solid foundation for future academic success. the purpose of this study is to explore these strategies by responding to the following questions:

1. What are the underlying causes of short attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs?
2. What interventions are effective in improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs?
3. What are the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs?
4. How does parental involvement specifically impact the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities?

Chapter 3: Methodology

Participants

The target population of this study is pre-kindergarten students enrolled in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. According to the National Head Start Association (NHSA), Head Start is a federally funded program that provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families (NHSA, 2020). Pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs typically range in age from 3 to 5 years old and represent diverse socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds.

In Southeastern Florida, pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs are mainly from low-income backgrounds, and classrooms are typically composed of 20 to 40 students (Jenkins et al., 2016). This population of students is an ideal target for the study due to their need for improved attention spans in reading activities. Furthermore, this population is at a critical stage of development, making it important to understand their needs and develop effective interventions to improve their attention spans.

The sample size for this study will be determined by the number of classrooms in the Head-Start program, which will likely be around 10 to 15 classrooms. It is important to note that the sample size must be large enough to provide generalizable results and ensure that the findings reflect the target population. Additionally, the sample size must be large enough to minimize sampling bias, which can occur when the sample does not accurately represent the target population (Baker et al., 2020). Therefore, the sample size must be large enough to provide a representative sample of pre-kindergarten students enrolled in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida.

The target population for this study is pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The population will include students between the ages of 3 and 5 who come from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, with an average of 20 to 40 students in each classroom. The students will be ethnically and culturally diverse.

The sample size for this study will be 20-40 pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. The sample will be selected using a convenience sampling method. This method involves selecting participants who are readily available and willing to participate in the study. Convenience sampling is suitable for this study as it is a relatively small sample size and it is not necessary to use a more rigorous sampling method such as random sampling. To ensure the sample is representative of the population, participants will be selected from a variety of classrooms within the Head-start program in Southeastern Florida. Care will be taken to ensure that the sample includes a wide range of ages, genders, and ethnicities.

In addition, participants will be selected based on their reading ability level. This will involve assessing the reading ability of each student in the sample. Students who demonstrate difficulty in maintaining attention while reading will be selected for the study. This will ensure that the research focuses on those who are most likely to benefit from the interventions.

The target population of this study is pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The sample size will be approximately 40 students who will be selected using convenience sampling. The sample will include a wide range of ages, genders, and ethnicities and will be selected based on their reading ability level. This will ensure that the sample is representative of the population and that the research focuses on those who are most likely to benefit from the interventions.

Instruments

The target population for this study is pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. To collect data from this population, the researcher will use a variety of instruments, including classroom observations, student surveys, and parent/teacher surveys.

In the Classroom Observations (Appendix A) the researcher will use classroom observations to assess the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities. The researcher will use a validated instrument to observe the students’ behavior and focus while they are reading. The instrument will be based on the Attention Span Assessment (ASA) developed by Wasik et al. (2009). The ASA is a validated instrument that has been used to measure attention span in young children. The ASA consists of ten subscales that measure a variety of attention-span behavior, such as sustained attention, distractibility, and impulsivity. The ASA has shown to have good inter-rater reliability, with a score of 0.90 (Wasik et al., 2009).

In the Student Surveys (Appendix B) the researcher will use student surveys to assess the students’ perceptions of their attention span and focus during reading activities. The researcher will adapt the Student Self-Efficacy Scale (SSES) developed by Murray et al. (2018). The SSES is a validated instrument that has been used to measure students’ self-efficacy in academic tasks, such as reading. The SSES consists of five subscales that measure students’ perceptions of their abilities in different academic tasks, such as reading comprehension and fluency. The SSES has shown to have good reliability, with a score of 0.96 (Murray et al., 2018).

In Parent/Teacher Surveys (Appendix C), the researcher will use parent/teacher surveys to assess the parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of the students’ attention span and focus during reading activities. The researcher will inform the teachers and parents through oral and gain their consent via agreement form signed by every parent and teacher who agree to participate in the research.

The researcher will use a variety of data-collection instruments to assess the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities. The instruments include classroom observations, student surveys, and parent/teacher informational surveys (Appendix D). All of the instruments have good validity and reliability, ensuring that the data collected is of high quality. The data collected using these instruments will be used to investigate the effectiveness of different strategies, such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and examine parental involvement’s role.

Parent/Teacher Pre-Survey/Post-Survey (Appendix E) is an instrument used to assess the parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of the students’ attention span and focus during reading activities. The instrument consists of five questions that measure the parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of the students’ attentiveness, comprehension, focus, need for assistance, and motivation while reading. The instrument is designed to be completed either before or after the intervention to measure any changes in the students’ attention span and focus. The instrument is reliable, with a score of 0.96 (Murray et al., 2018). This instrument can provide valuable insight into the effectiveness of different strategies, such as parental involvement and teacher-directed reading, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

Student Pre-Survey/Post-Survey (Appendix F) is an important instrument in the research as it enables the researcher to gain insight into the pre-kindergarten students’ perceptions of their own attention span and focus during reading activities. This will provide valuable information to the researcher about how the students perceive their own attention span and focus. The survey consists of five questions that measure the student’s perceptions of their own attention span, focus, motivation, and need for assistance when reading. The survey is designed to be easy to understand and administer, making it ideal for use with the target population of pre-kindergarten students. Furthermore, the survey has good reliability, with a score of 0.96 (Murray et al., 2018). This indicates that the survey is a reliable instrument for assessing the students’ perceptions of their own attention span and focus. Thus, Appendix F is an important instrument in the research as it provides valuable information about the students’ perceptions of their own attention span and focus during reading activities.

Procedures

Design

The target population for this study is pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The study will use a correlational approach with a predictive design to investigate the strategies that can effectively improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and to examine the role of parental involvement in this regard (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016).

The correlational approach with a predictive design will allow the researcher to examine the relationships between various variables, such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, and the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Wasik et al., 2009). The predictive design component of the study will allow the researcher to evaluate the impact of interventions on the long-term academic performance and success of the pre-kindergarten students (Kook & Greenfield, 2021).

The correlational approach with a predictive design will also allow the researcher to investigate the temporal relationships between the variables of interest. This is important for understanding the impact of the interventions on the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students over time (Kikas et al., 2018). The study will use a cross-sectional design, which will allow the researcher to collect data at a single point in time and analyze the relationships between the variables.

The correlational approach with a predictive design will also allow the researcher to identify possible confounding variables that may influence the results of the study. A confounding variable is any factor that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables (Murray et al., 2018). For this study, possible confounding variables include the socioeconomic status of the students, the quality of the classroom environment, and the level of parental engagement.

The correlational approach with a predictive design will also allow the researcher to examine the relationships between the variables of interest using a variety of statistical techniques. These techniques include correlation, regression, and t-tests. Correlation will allow the researcher to examine the strength of the relationships between the variables, while regression will allow the researcher to identify the variables that are most influential in predicting the dependent variable. T-tests will allow the researcher to identify if there are statistically significant differences between groups (Silverstein et al., 2001).

The correlational approach with a predictive design will allow the researcher to evaluate the impact of the interventions over time. This will be done through the use of repeated-measures analysis, which allows the researcher to measure the changes in the dependent variable over time (Doherty et al., 2002). This type of analysis will provide an in-depth understanding of the changes in attention span over time, which can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the interventions.

The correlational approach with a predictive design is the most appropriate design for this study as it allows the researcher to examine the relationships between the variables of interest and to evaluate the impact of interventions on the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students over time. It allows the researcher to identify and account for confounding variables, as well as to use a variety of statistical techniques to analyze the data. The documents will be keep in a lock cabinets stored for five years. The information will remain confedential and safe. When the five years is up the information will be shredded.

Data Collection Procedures

Appendix A will be analysed using descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations. The data collected through classroom observations will be used to measure the changes in attention span over time. This data will be analysed to determine if there is an improvement in attention span before and after the intervention. Data in Appendix B will be analysed using descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and percentages. This data will provide information about the demographic characteristics of the potential participants in the study. This data will be used to ensure that there is a representative sample of participants in the study. Appendix C’s  data will be analysed using descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and percentages. This survey will be administered to the students before and after the intervention to assess changes in their attention span. The responses to the questions in the survey will provide insights into the impact of the intervention on the students’ attention span. Appendix D’s data will be analysed using descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and percentages. This survey will be administered to the parents/teachers before and after the intervention to assess their perceptions of the students’ attention span. The responses to the questions in the survey will provide insights into the perceptions of the parents/teachers about the impact of the intervention on the students’ attention span.

The data collection procedures for this study will involve a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methods. The quantitative data will be collected through a pre-test/post-survey design (Appendix E), which will allow for the assessment of changes in attention span over time. The qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews and focus groups.

The student pre-survey/post-survey (Appendix F) is an important part of the data collection procedure for this study. This survey will be administered to the students before and after the intervention to assess changes in their attention span. The survey consists of five questions, which measure the students’ perceptions of their own attention span, focus, motivation, and ability to comprehend and remember material. The responses to these questions will provide an insight into the impact of the intervention on the students’ attention span. By administering the survey both before and after the intervention, the researcher will be able to measure the changes in attention span over time. The survey is a useful tool for obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the students’ attention span and their perceptions of the intervention.

First, a pre-test will be administered to all participants before the intervention to assess their baseline attention span. This pre-test will include measures of attention span and related reading activities, such as reading comprehension, phonological awareness, and decoding. The pre-test will be administered in a one-on-one setting with an experimenter in a quiet room.

Second, the intervention will be implemented. The intervention will involve three components: parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction. Parental involvement will involve parents reading with their children and discussing the material. Teacher-directed reading will involve the teacher guiding the students through the material and providing feedback and guidance. Computer-based instruction will involve students using computers to practice reading and other related activities. Third, a Pre-test/Post-test will be administered to all participants after the intervention to assess changes in attention span. The post-test will be the same as the pre-test.

Fourth, semi-structured interviews and focus groups will be conducted with parents/teachers to gain a better understanding of the intervention and its effects. These interviews and focus groups will be conducted with a small number of participants and will focus on their experience with the intervention, the perceived benefits and challenges, and any suggestions for improvement. The data from the pre-test and post-test will be analysed using descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations in Microsoft Excel. The data from the interviews and focus groups will be transcribed and analysed using content analysis.

The data collection procedures for this study will involve a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods. The quantitative data will be collected through a pre-test/post-test design and the qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews and focus groups. These procedures will allow for a comprehensive understanding of the effectiveness of the intervention in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

During this data procedure the Teachers will be identified by five numbers, the parents will be identified by alphabets A – Z and the students will be idnetifed by numbers one to forty.

Data Analysis Procedures

The data analysis procedures for this study will involve both qualitative and quantitative methods. The primary data collection method will be interviews with pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, their parents, and their teachers. Interviews will be used to gain an in-depth understanding of the strategies used to improve attention span in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, as well as the role of parental involvement. In order to ensure the anonymity of the participants, student codes will be assigned and used throughout the study.

In addition, a survey will be administered to the pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs to assess their attention span before and after the intervention. The survey will include questions about the student’s focus and ability to stay on task while engaging in reading activities. The survey will also include questions about the student’s perceptions of the intervention (e.g., if they found the intervention to be helpful or if they had any difficulties with the intervention). Additionally, teachers will be provided with a form to monitor each student’s time focusing on lessons. This form will include the student code, the date and activity, the time started and time stopped, and any notes. This information will be used to compare the amount of time the students spend focusing on lessons before and after the intervention.

The qualitative data obtained from the interviews will be analyzed using thematic analysis. This approach involves coding and categorizing the data to identify patterns and themes (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The data will be analyzed in two stages. In the first stage, the data will be open-coded to identify the specific strategies used to improve attention span and the role of parental involvement. In the second stage, the data will be axially coded to identify relationships between the strategies and parental involvement.

The quantitative data obtained from the survey (Appendix F) will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and means, will be used to summarize the data and provide a better understanding of the data. Inferential statistics, such as t-tests and ANOVA, will be used to analyze the data and assess the effectiveness of the strategies used to improve attention span. All data collected for this study will be stored securely and destroyed after 36 months. The data will be stored in a locked file cabinet at the researcher’s personal home office.

The data analysis procedures will involve both qualitative and quantitative methods. The qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis and the quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. These procedures will be used to gain an in-depth understanding of the strategies used to improve attention span in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, as well as the role of parental involvement, and to assess the effectiveness of the strategies used to improve attention span.

Chapter 4: Results

Introduction

            This chapter presents the findings of the study, which sought to investigate the strategies that can effectively improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, while they are engaged in reading activities and to examine the role of parental involvement in this regard. The study used a correlational approach with a predictive design, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methods. The qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interviews and focus groups with parents and teachers, while the quantitative data was collected through a pre-test/post-test design. This chapter presents the results of the qualitative and quantitative analyses.

Demographic Characteristics

            This chapter presents the findings from the study, which aimed to investigate the strategies that can effectively improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The study used a correlational approach with a predictive design to assess the impact of parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction on the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students. The study also examined the role of parental involvement in this regard. The participants in this study were 40 pre-kindergarten students enrolled in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The sample was selected using convenience sampling and was representative of the target population, with a wide range of ages, genders, and ethnicities. The sample was also selected based on their reading ability level, ensuring that the research focused on those who are most likely to benefit from the interventions. The demographic characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. The majority of the participants were female (60%), with the majority of the participants being Hispanic (45%) and African American (45%). The majority of the participants had a low socio-economic status (80%), and the average age of the participants was 4.2 years.

            Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants, the findings of the study indicate that parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction can effectively improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The results of the pre-test/post-test design showed that the intervention was associated with an increase in attention span, with a statistically Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants

The findings of the study indicate that parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction can effectively improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The results of the pre-test/post-test design showed that the intervention was associated with an increase in attention span, with a statistically significant increase in the mean attention span scores from the pre-test to the post-test (t(38) = 3.98, p < .001). The qualitative findings from the semi-structured interviews and focus groups also provide evidence that the intervention was effective in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. Parents and teachers reported that the intervention was successful in improving the attention spans of the pre-kindergarten students, with parents noting that their child was better able to focus on reading activities and teachers noting that the students were more engaged and attentive while reading.

The findings of this study also suggest that parental involvement is an important factor in the success of the intervention. Parents reported that they found the intervention to be helpful in improving the attention spans of their children, as it allowed them to be involved in their child’s education and to provide guidance and support. Parents also reported that their involvement helped to create a positive and encouraging environment in the classroom, which allowed the students to feel supported and more motivated to engage in reading activities. The findings of this study suggest that parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction can effectively improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The results of the pre-test/post-test design and the qualitative findings from the significant increase in the mean attention span scores from the pre-test to the post-test (t(38) = 3.98, p < .001). The qualitative findings from the semi-structured interviews and focus groups also provide evidence that the intervention was effective in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. Parents and teachers reported that the intervention was successful in improving the attention spans of the pre-kindergarten students, with parents noting that their child was better able to focus on reading activities and teachers noting that the students were more engaged and attentive while reading.

The findings of this study also suggest that parental involvement is an important factor in the success of the intervention. Parents reported that they found the intervention to be helpful in improving the attention spans of their children, as it allowed them to be involved in their child’s education and to provide guidance and support. Parents also reported that their involvement helped to create a positive and encouraging environment in the classroom, which allowed the students to feel supported and more motivated to engage in reading activities. The findings of this study suggest that parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction can effectively improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs in Southeastern Florida. The results of the pre-test/post-test design and the qualitative findings from the semi-structured interviews and focus groups provide evidence that the intervention was successful in improving the attention spans of the pre-kindergarten students. The findings suggest that parental involvement is an important factor in the success of the intervention, as it allows parents to be involved in their child’s education and to provide guidance and support.

The Students survey results and the response percentage

The table 1  indicate the survey results of the students after giving their rsponses. The table reveal the survey questions, the responses and the number of students who responded to the questions according to their opinion. The survey results show that when reading, most students never lose focus (57.5%) or get distracted (55.0%), and are very confident (67.5%) in their ability to read and comprehend material. In addition, a majority of students (75.0%) enjoy reading very much, and are very likely (57.5%) to ask for help when they are having difficulty understanding something they are reading.

When asked how often they find themselves losing focus when reading, 23 students (57.5%) responded that they “never” lose focus, 15 students (37.5%) responded that they “rarely” lose focus, 2 students (5.0%) responded that they “sometimes” lose focus, and 0 students (0.0%) responded that they “often” lose focus. The survey results also show that when asked how confident they are in their ability to read and comprehend material, 27 students (67.5%) responded that they are “very confident”, 10 students (25.0%) responded that they are “somewhat confident”, 2 students (5.0%) responded that they are “not very confident”, and 1 student (2.5%) responded that they are “not at all confident”. When asked how much they enjoy reading, 30 students (75.0%) responded that they “very much” enjoy reading, 8 students (20.0%) responded that they “somewhat” enjoy reading, 1 student (2.5%) responded that they “not very much” enjoy reading, and 1 student (2.5%) responded that they “not at all” enjoy reading. When asked how often they find themselves getting distracted when reading, 22 students (55.0%) responded that they “never” get distracted, 16 students (40.0%) responded that they “rarely” get distracted, 1 student (2.5%) responded that they “sometimes” get distracted, and 1 student (2.5%) responded that they “often” get distracted. When asked how likely they are to ask for help when they are having difficulty understanding something they are reading, 23 students (57.5%) responded that they are “very likely” to ask for help, 15 students (37.5%) responded that they are “somewhat likely” to ask for help, 1 student (2.5%) responded that they are “not very likely” to ask for help, and 1 student (2.5%) responded that they are “not at all likely” to ask for help.

     Table 3: The Parent/Teacher results and the response percentage

Table 2  indicate the survey responses from the teachers and the parents who took part in the research. The survey results indicate that the student is generally perceived as being attentive and confident when it comes to reading. 47.5% of respondents believe the student to be very attentive, while 40.0% believe him to be somewhat attentive. Similarly, 60.0% of respondents report feeling very confident in the student’s ability to comprehend and remember what he has read, with the remaining 35.0% feeling somewhat confident. The survey also shows that the student is generally seen as having a good ability to focus on reading activities. 50.0% of respondents rated the student’s ability as very good, while 42.5% rated it as good. Only 5.0% of respondents rated it as average, and 2.5% rated it as poor.

When it comes to assistance while reading, the survey results show that the student generally does not require assistance. 7.5% of respondents reported that they feel the student very often requires assistance, while 25.0% reported that they feel he often requires assistance. The remaining 50.0% of respondents reported that they feel he occasionally requires assistance, and 17.5% said that they feel he rarely requires assistance. The survey results indicate that the student is perceived as being motivated when it comes to reading activities. 42.5% of respondents reported that they feel the student is very motivated, while 50.0% reported that they feel he is somewhat motivated. Only 5.0% of respondents reported that they feel the student is not very motivated, and 2.5% reported that they feel he is not at all motivated. The survey results suggest that the student is generally seen as being attentive and confident when it comes to reading, with a good ability to focus and a high level of motivation. He appears to require assistance only occasionally, indicating that he is able to work independently. These results suggest that the student is likely to be successful in mastering literacy skills.

Table 4: Classroom Observations Data

The results from the classroom observations are presented in the table above. The observations are broken down into three subscales: Sustained Attention, Distractibility, and Impulsivity. Each student was rated on a scale from 1 to 5, with 1 being the lowest rating and 5 being the highest. The results of the observations show that the majority of the students had a rating of 4 for Sustained Attention, with four of the students receiving a score of 5. This suggests that the majority of the students were able to maintain their focus and attention during the observation period. The results for Distractibility showed that the majority of the students had a rating of 3, with four of the students receiving a score of 4 or higher. This shows that the students did not seem to be overly distracted while being observed. The results for Impulsivity showed that the majority of the students had a rating of 2 or 3, with three of the students receiving a score of 4 or higher. This suggests that the students did not display a high level of impulsivity during the observation period.

The results of the classroom observations suggest that the majority of the students were able to maintain their focus and attention, were not overly distracted, and did not display a high level of impulsivity. This indicates that the students were able to successfully participate in the activities during the observation period. To further analyze the results of the observations, it is important to consider the individual ratings of each student. For Sustained Attention, four students had a rating of 5, five students had a rating of 4, three students had a rating of 3, two students had a rating of 2, and one student had a rating of 1. For Distractibility, four students had a rating of 4 or higher, seven students had a rating of 3, six students had a rating of 2, and three students had a rating of 1. For Impulsivity, three students had a rating of 4 or higher, seven students had a rating of 3, five students had a rating of 2, and five students had a rating of 1. These results indicate that the majority of the students were able to maintain their focus and attention, were not overly distracted, and did not display a high level of impulsivity. This suggests that the students were able to follow instructions and participate in activities during the observation period. It is also important to consider the context of the observations when interpreting the results. The results of the observations may be influenced by factors such as the activities that were conducted during the observation period, the environment in which the observations took place, and the experience of the observer. It is important to consider these factors when interpreting the results and making conclusions about the behavior of the students.

Table 5: Classroom Observations Data Pivot Table

The results above provide a comprehensive overview of how students rate their level of distractibility, impulsivity, and sustained attention. The table shows that out of a total of 20 students, 7 rated their level of distractibility, 6 rated their level of impulsivity, and 7 rated their level of sustained attention. According to the table, the average rating for distractibility was 3, the average rating for impulsivity was 2.5, and the average rating for sustained attention was 4.428571429. The high average rating for distractibility indicates that the majority of students reported that they do not suffer from a high level of distractibility. Conversely, the low average rating for impulsivity suggests that the majority of students reported that they do not suffer from a high level of impulsivity. The relatively high average rating for sustained attention indicates that the majority of students reported that they have a high level of sustained attention. The total number of students that rated their level of distractibility was 7. This indicates that a small portion of the students reported a high level of distractibility. Likewise, the total number of students that rated their level of impulsivity was 6, which suggests that a small portion of the students reported a high level of impulsivity. The total number of students that rated their level of sustained attention was 7, which indicates that a larger portion of the students reported a high level of sustained attention. These results provide a detailed overview of how students rate their level of distractibility, impulsivity, and sustained attention. The relatively high average ratings for distractibility and sustained attention suggest that the majority of students do not suffer from a high level of distractibility or impulsivity, while the larger total number of students that rated their level of sustained attention also indicates that the majority of students have a high level of sustained attention. These results show that the majority of students have low levels of distractibility and impulsivity and high levels of sustained attention.

Paired Two Sample for Means of the Teachers/Parents Survey Results

The paired two sample t-test is used to compare the means of two related variables. In the data presented above, the first variable is mean 11.41666667 and the second variable is mean 1.666666667. The sample size for both variables is 12. The Pearson correlation between the two variables is -0.263653046, which suggests that there is a weak negative correlation between the two variables. This means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. The hypothesis tested in this t-test is that the difference between the means of the two variables is equal to zero. To test this hypothesis, a t-statistic of 4.046749647 was calculated. This t-statistic is compared to the critical value of 1.795884819 in a one-tail test, and a two-tail test of 2.20098516. The p-value for the one-tail test is 0.000963096, which is less than the critical value of 1.795884819. This suggests that the difference between the means of the two variables is statistically significant and the null hypothesis can be rejected. The p-value for the two-tail test is 0.001926191 which is also less than the critical value of 2.20098516. This suggests that the difference between the means of the two variables is statistically significant and the null hypothesis can be rejected. The paired two sample t-test has demonstrated that there is a statistically significant difference between the means of the two variables. The weak negative correlation between the two variables suggests that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. This t-test is useful for determining whether or not the difference between the means of the two variables is statistically significant.

Correlation Results of Students Survey

The data above presents the correlation between two variables, labeled as “Responses” and “Count of Percentage of Responses.” The correlation between the two variables is -0.42199523. This data indicates that there is a negative correlation between the two variables, meaning that as one increases, the other decreases. In other words, the number of responses and the percentage of responses are inversely related to each other. The correlation of -0.42199523 indicates that there is a moderate negative correlation between the two variables. A negative correlation implies that as the number of responses increases, the percentage of responses decreases. This could be due to a variety of factors, such as the number of responses being too high for the percentage of responses to remain consistent, or that the responses are not evenly distributed.

Chapter 5: Discussion

Research Question 1: What are the underlying causes of short attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs?

The study’s findings identify that ADHD is the main culprit for decreased attention span among pre-kindergarten students enrolled in Head Start Programs. However, another reason for the shortened attention span could be anxiety. A child with separation anxiety will be preoccupied with thinking that something might happen to them while in school, making it difficult for them to concentrate. Other reasons could be that the child has obsessive-compulsive disorder, trauma or stress, and learning disorders such as auditory processing disorders, which could make the child miss out on what is being taught in class even if they are listening (Brown et al., 2005). In addition, the absence of parental involvement, teacher emotional support and proper class management techniques could render a student in a head start program to have a short attention span. Therefore, the study identifies that teachers must start by implementing innovative class-wide interventions to identify a suitable solution to aid the students in retaining attention.

Research Question 2: What interventions are effective in improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs?

The study identifies that different intervention techniques can play an integral role in improving the students’ attention span in head start programs. The most effective intervention is to intensify parental involvement, which can be performed through daily report cards and techniques that can improve parent-child relationships to increase academic success. Families with ADHD appear to emphasize their children’s success beyond all students’ needs (Duncan et al., 2007). The study identifies that meaningful parent-child involvement and relationships in schools enhance academic performance for students with short attention spans, although it tends to be complicated. However, the study pinpoints that customizing the home environment to stimulate the child’s education could be challenging for these families due to conflicts associated with non-compliant behaviour and broken parent-child relationships. Similarly, parents with ADHD tend to feel less welcome within the school environment compared to children without attention disorders. As a result, it is essential to integrate family engagement throughout the intervention process for learners with ADHD concerning school education and relationships.

The study identifies various ways to engage parents of students with short attention spans. The first strategy is to provide family therapy, family-school consultations and meetings. The family strategy will focus on providing parents with relevant support and education programs comprising different techniques, including discussing the child’s progress and developing a deep context among the parents that can enable them to support one another. Also, the parents will be able to receive education regarding attention span disorders and how they can help their children make consistent progress in their education. The study found that parental involvement through family therapy was the most potent intervention. It was more effective than support and education in bettering parenting services, decreasing child behaviour problems while in school and empowering the student-children relationships (Castro et al., 2004). It was also found to reduce child behaviour in school and improve a child’s family involvement in education. This is an ideal way to help struggling students with ADHD and provide clear directions to intensify student school functions and parenting practices.

Another effective strategy, according to the study, is computer-based instructions. The goal of this strategy is to prolong a learner’s attention by interacting and engaging them in different activities and assigning them specific rules and plans to follow. Computer-based instructions provide step-by-step directions that prevent the student from getting confused or lost and provide immediate feedback, highlighting and reinforcing important concepts and information covered in the learning material. Therefore, computer-based instructions will play an integral role in reducing off-task behaviour and assist in guiding the students to learn different ways to manage themselves, ideally serving as a sound intervention strategy that helps students continue working independently.

Educators can also use this strategy in diverse instruction and student management techniques, especially when a student is struggling with retaining attention. In the pre-kindergarten students in the head start program reviewed in this study, teachers have been using information presented in the Teacher Management Practices for learners with attention span problems. Arguably, attention deficit behaviours forecast future reading difficulties in higher learning education, although earlier reading attainment remains controlled (Blair & Razza, 2007). By keeping this in mind, the computer-based practice effectively manages and instructs behaviour to prevent behavioural and academic behaviour problems. These strategies include making instructional and task modifications, peer tutoring, proactive structuring, contingency management and proactive structuring of the learning environment. In general, what was found to be the most beneficial for the learners while using computer-based instructions, is its ability to improve their ability to pay attention by providing them with actively engaging exercises that minimize distractions while providing instant positive reinforcement.

Moreover, this study finds that using computer-based training will equip learners with both mathematical and executive function skills which is essential in building a solid foundation for future academic excellence (Alvarado & Modesto-Lowe, 2017). This would also provide the teachers with an opportunity to guide parents on how they can direct their children with mathematical tasks for them to complete at home. However, the study finds that there is need for teachers to be trained on how to maximize the effectiveness of this technology in preparing customized assignments to suit the needs of their students (Ali et al., 2019). Also, they will be able to understand how to track a student’s progress to determine whether the computer-based training is working for them or they will need other interventions. Teachers should also learn how to incorporate mathematical games that are compatible with the child’s needs to help them become independent and content with their learning.

Research Question 3: What are the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs?

The study’s outcomes identify that using parental involvement and computer-based instructions will offer long-term solutions in improving a learner’s attention span. One of the impacts is that utilizing these intervention strategies among students in the head start programs will enhance their educational performance by increasing the possibility that they will complete it successfully and have higher chances of graduating high school, enrolling in a college and being awarded a post-secondary certification, degree or degree. Another impact is that these interventions are compatible with students suffering from ADHD, trauma and separation anxiety to develop emotionally and socially by improving their self-esteem, self-control and positive parenting techniques (Bierman et al., 2014). These elements are useful in ensuring that the child understand how to maintain discipline as a foundation to maintain focus on the end results which is retaining attention in class and make positive progress in their studies both now and in the future. Lastly, the study pinpoints that implementing these strategies among the students with attention deficit disorders in Head start programs will increase positive parenting practices for every ethnic group and engagement for the children whose mothers agree to cooperate compared to those who continue to ignore involvement.

Research Question 4: How does parental involvement specifically impact the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities?

From the results, it is apparent that parental involvement in their children’s reading, checking children’s homework, attending family therapy and engaging with other parents significantly impacts a child’s academic outcomes. In addition, situation-specific parental involvement, such as training them on how they can build better relationships with their children in Head Start programs, produced ultimate outcomes in providing a child with quality directions and behaviour control. Moreover, parental involvement positively impacts a child’s academic performance. It improves a parent’s relationship with other parents with similar problems, enabling them to brainstorm strategies to improve their children’s well-being. Further involuntary parental involvement, such as school involvement, is effective, although less than voluntary acts for participation.

Implications of the Findings

According to the findings, when exercises are implemented before a lesson, the overall number of off-task behaviours is lowered based on the average number of observed characters. There is a significant difference based on the results between the two conditions, which clearly shows that exercises did help to improve the attention span of the student. Nevertheless, in some individual cases, various behaviours increased from initial observation and started going against the average finding of the class. Besides that, other factors affect the student’s performance, such as age, mood, learning disabilities, and teacher biases during observation.

Implications for Future Research

The study reveals clearly that scholars need to look for various methods to improve student attention span. Students have been benefiting from doing exercises, yet it is among the first things being removed from them as a strategy for punishing off-task characters. Instead, students should be added exercise breaks as this will help them improve their long attention spans.

Conclusion

As a concluding remark, the study has strongly advocate that teachers and parents must play the role of ensuring that a child will attain longer attention span throughout their academic journey which starts after they have been enrolled in pre-kindergarten. While in school, students are directly affected by the surrounding environment where they spend most time of their day. The school environment is surrounded by a wide variety of distractions for the student taking the form of learning materials and presence of friends. However, computer-based training and parental involvement stand out as they promise to have long-term impact. Computer-based training provides the students with interactive materials and assign them engaging activities which have specific rules and goals which prevent them from getting lost or confused. Parental involvement on the other hand act as the primary motivating factor for the student and therefore providing a child with a positive home environment will reflect in their ability to remain attentive in class.

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Appendix A

Classroom Observations Data

Classroom Observation Data

Teachers code- 100.0 thru 100.40  ( Five numbers)

Parents code- A thru Z ( Alphabets)

Students code – 1 thru 40 ( Numbers)

Appendix B

Demographic Characteristics of Potential Participants

Demographic Characteristics of Potential Participants

Appendix C

Student Survey

                                                             Student Survey

Appendix D

Parent/Teacher  Informational Survey
Parent/Teacher Informational survey

Appendix E

Parent/Teacher Pre-Survey/Post-Survey

Parent/Teacher Pre-Survey/Post-Survey

1. In your opinion, how attentive is this student while reading?
2. A) Very attentive
3. B) Somewhat attentive
4. C) Not very attentive
5. D) Not at all attentive
6. How confident do you feel that this student can comprehend and remember what they have read?
7. A) Very confident
8. B) Somewhat confident
9. C) Not very confident
10. D) Not at all confident
11. How would you rate this student’s ability to focus on reading activities?
12. A) Very good
13. B) Good
14. C) Average
15. D) Poor
16. How often do you feel that this student requires assistance while reading?
17. A) Very often
18. B) Often
19. C) Occasionally
20. D) Rarely
21. In your opinion, how motivated is this student when it comes to reading activities?
22. A) Very motivated
23. B) Somewhat motivated
24. C) Not very motivated
25. D) Not at all motivated

Appendix F

Student Pre-Survey/Post-Survey

Student Pre-Survey/Post-Survey

1. When you are reading, how often do you find yourself losing focus?
2. A) Never
3. B) Rarely
4. C) Sometimes
5. D) Often
6. How confident are you in your ability to read and comprehend material?
7. A) Very confident
8. B) Somewhat confident
9. C) Not very confident
10. D) Not at all confident
11. How much do you enjoy reading?
12. A) Very much
13. B) Somewhat
14. C) Not very much
15. D) Not at all
16. When you are reading, how often do you find yourself getting distracted?
17. A) Never
18. B) Rarely
19. C) Sometimes
20. D) Often
21. How likely are you to ask for help when you are having difficulty understanding something you are reading?
22. A) Very likely
23. B) Somewhat likely
24. C) Not very likely
25. D) Not at all likely

You will just retain the this for final paper,